The history of Japan is a rich tapestry woven with power struggles, cultural transformations and feudal intrigue. Among the most fascinating chapters is the 室町幕府 Muromachi Bakufu (also known as the Ashikaga Shogunate), which lasted from 1336 to 1573. It was an era marked by political turbulence, artistic flourishing, and military conflict. Far from smooth sailing, the Muromachi period saw both major achievements and devastating failures, all shaped by the personalities and power plays of the time. So, let’s delve into what led to the rise of this shogunate, what it achieved, and how it eventually met its demise.
What Came Before: Seeds of Rebellion
To understand the Muromachi Bakufu, it’s essential to look at the collapse of the Kamakura Shogunate, which ruled from 1185 to 1333. The Kamakura period was the first time Japan was ruled by a military government headed by a shogun. While it initially stabilised Japan after centuries of internal conflict, the Kamakura regime began to falter in the late 13th and early 14th centuries.
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The Mongol invasions of 1274 and 1281, though repelled with the aid of typhoons (the famed “kamikaze” or divine winds), left the Kamakura government in financial disarray. Samurai who had fought in the defence of Japan expected land or rewards, but the government couldn’t afford to pay them properly. Discontent grew among the warrior class, who felt they were no longer being represented.
This story of governments overpromising or being unable to follow through on their promises is an endless, repeating cycle that is not limited to Japan, but Japanese history does spend a lot of time in flux.
At the same time, Emperor Go-Daigo began harbouring ambitions to restore imperial rule and wrest power back from the military government. In 1331, he launched the Kemmu Restoration in a bid to reassert imperial authority. Initially, he had support from disaffected samurai, including Ashikaga Takauji, a general from a prominent warrior clan. Together with another general, Nitta Yoshisada, they managed to overthrow the Kamakura Shogunate by 1333.
The Road to Muromachi: Division and Dissatisfaction
Go-Daigo’s restoration was short-lived. Though he had overthrown the Kamakura regime, he failed to satisfy the powerful samurai who had supported him. Instead of redistributing land and wealth to his allies, he tried to centralise power in the imperial court and promoted aristocrats over warriors. This alienated many of the military elites who had expected to be rewarded, especially Ashikaga Takauji—one of Go-Daigo’s most powerful allies—who began to see the emperor’s rule as untenable.
Ashikaga Takauji, feeling increasingly disillusioned, turned against the emperor in 1336 and established a rival government in Kyoto, installing a new emperor more sympathetic to his cause. This began the Northern and Southern Courts period (Nanboku-chō), a dynastic schism where two imperial lines claimed legitimacy. Though it wouldn’t be fully resolved until 1392, Takauji effectively took control of the country, marking the beginning of the Muromachi Bakufu.
The Southern Court was represented by the deposed Go-Daigo, now in effect in exile in Yoshino, whereas the Northern Court occupied Kyoto as represented by 光明天皇・こうみょうてんのう.
The name “Muromachi” comes from the district in Kyoto where Takauji’s successors set up their headquarters. From here, the Ashikaga shoguns would rule Japan in a complex and often fractured political landscape for over two centuries.
Major Players and Early Struggles
Despite its founding, the Muromachi regime was far from stable. Its early decades were marked by shifting loyalties, internal fragmentation, and contested authority
Ashikaga Takauji, the founder of the shogunate, was both a military genius and a shrewd political operator. Yet even he struggled to maintain unity. The early years of the Muromachi Bakufu were far from stable. Loyalties shifted frequently, and regional warlords (大名・だいみょう) often acted autonomously, ignoring central authority.
Japan’s social order was being pulled in several directions as various forces came to a head. The conservatives who were keen to continue with the previous Kamakura Bakufu were clashing with the new Takauji direction. The 惣領制・そうりょうせい system, a traditional method of inheritance and leadership within samurai clans, began to break down, meaning that customs and tradition around land transfer and inheritance became major issues. The move to single succession had become common, meaning non-heirs were made subordinate to the heir, causing discord amongst the various warrior bands that formed the fragile coalition holding up both the Northern and Southern Courts.
There was increasingly decentralisation of power throughout Japan, and local or regional leaders became more powerful. The new regime attempted to give out tax powers and stem the tide by trying to buy new allies via keeping the so-called 守護大名・しゅごだいみょう onside.
Takauji’s son, Ashikaga Yoshiakira, and his grandson, Ashikaga Yoshimitsu, helped consolidate power. Yoshimitsu, the third shogun, was perhaps the most accomplished of the Ashikaga rulers. Coming to power at just 10 years old, he demonstrated remarkable political acumen. By 1392, he managed to broker peace between the Northern and Southern Courts, officially ending the Nanboku-chō divide. This was a major milestone and cemented his reputation as a statesman.
Yoshimitsu also built the famous Kinkaku-ji (Golden Pavilion), reflecting his love for the arts and signalling the start of a cultural renaissance in Kyoto that would become one of the Muromachi period’s lasting legacies.
Under Yoshimitsu’s leadership, the Muromachi shogunate not only solidified its political base but also laid the cultural foundations that would define an era
Cultural High Points
Even amid political turmoil, the Muromachi period became a crucible for cultural innovation and aesthetic refinement. Much of this cultural flourishing was made possible through the patronage of the Ashikaga shoguns, especially Ashikaga Yoshimitsu.
Trade with Ming China resumed under Yoshimitsu’s rule, leading to economic growth and an influx of Chinese goods and cultural influences. This cross-cultural exchange helped shape Japanese aesthetics, blending native traditions with imported ideas.
Chinese influence was especially visible in Kyoto’s architectural styles such as the striking 金閣寺, the increased use of gold leaf in decoration, and even in shifts in courtly and monastic lifestyles.
Scandals and Shaky Foundations
Not all was serene, of course. Intrigue and betrayal were constant features of the Muromachi court. Perhaps the most notorious scandal involved Ashikaga Yoshinori, the sixth shogun. Known for his cruelty and arrogance, he was deeply unpopular among the daimyō. In 1441, he was assassinated by Akamatsu Mitsusuke, a former ally who had grown disenchanted with Yoshinori’s heavy-handedness. This assassination shocked the court and further weakened central authority.
From then on, successive shoguns struggled to keep a grip on power. The weakening of the central government allowed powerful daimyō to assert more independence in their provinces, setting the stage for what would become a century of civil war.
The Ōnin War and Descent into Chaos
The final nail in the coffin of Ashikaga authority came in the form of the Ōnin War (1467–1477). On the surface, it was a dispute over the succession of the shogunate, but in reality, it was a proxy war between powerful daimyō families: the Hosokawa and Yamana clans.
The conflict turned Kyoto into a battleground. Entire sections of the city were burned, and the central government was rendered powerless. Though the war officially ended in 1477, the fighting never truly stopped. Japan entered what is now known as the Sengoku period, or the Warring States era, where regional lords vied for dominance and the shogunate existed mostly in name.
The war was just the visible effects of years of turmoil as the Ashikaga clan tried to hold onto power. There would be 150 years of conflict to try to deal with shifting alliances, power vacuums and weak, incumbent government.
The Sengoku period ended the Ashikaga shogunate, but not the institution of the shogunate itself. Instead, it cleared the path for a much stronger and centralised Tokugawa shogunate.
Ashikaga Yoshimasa and Cultural Legacy
Even as the country descended into chaos, Ashikaga Yoshimasa, the eighth shogun, continued to champion the arts. He commissioned the construction of the Ginkaku-ji (Silver Pavilion), which became a centre for the Higashiyama Culture. This period saw the refinement of tea ceremony, ikebana (flower arranging), and traditional architecture, much of which still influences Japanese culture today.
Ironically, Yoshimasa’s neglect of political affairs contributed heavily to the Ōnin War, yet his cultural legacy has outlived his political failures.
The Fall of the Muromachi Bakufu
The Ashikaga shogunate limped on into the 16th century, increasingly irrelevant in the face of rising regional powers like the Oda, Tokugawa, and Toyotomi clans. The final shogun, Ashikaga Yoshiaki, was installed by Oda Nobunaga in 1568, essentially as a puppet ruler.
Nobunaga, however, had no interest in sharing power. In 1573, he drove Yoshiaki out of Kyoto, marking the official end of the Muromachi Bakufu. Though Yoshiaki lived in exile for years, the Ashikaga line was effectively finished. With the shogunate dissolved, Japan remained in a state of civil war until Tokugawa Ieyasu finally unified the country in 1600 and established a new military government.
Conclusion: A Legacy of Paradox
The Muromachi Bakufu is a paradox in many ways. It presided over one of the most turbulent periods in Japanese history, marked by warfare and decentralisation. Yet it also gave rise to some of Japan’s most enduring cultural achievements. The Ashikaga shoguns were often weak rulers, unable to control the powerful daimyō they depended on for military support. And yet, their patronage of the arts helped define the aesthetic and spiritual identity of Japan.
Their rule reminds us that history is rarely tidy. The Muromachi period was messy, complex, and riddled with contradictions—but it was precisely those contradictions that made it such a pivotal era in the shaping of modern Japan.
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